Chapter 8

            In Chapter 8, it talks about values and the public policy process. Values are part of the very nature of the policy process because values help set goals and a program’s success or failure is “largely measured by how well it achieves its goals.

            Head Start, a federally funded preschool program that aims to improve a child’s overall well being, is an example of how values are great in public policies. Head start is for kids ages 4 and below that come from low-income families. At first, Head Start was only for children ages 3 and 4, but because the early years in a child’s life are critical in their developmental processes, it was extended in the 1990s to children as young as newborns—just like a daycare center.

            Another thing this chapter talks about are two contrasting views of government management which are results-oriented management and process-oriented management. Outcome-oriented program objectives are set by managers to analyze their programs and report their findings to CEOs or the people in positions above them. Process-oriented management is where objectives “are limited to comment, feedback, and process objectives.”

            In order for any policy to work anywhere, the policies must always be evaluated. The typical evaluation standards are compliance, efficiency and effectiveness. Compliance relies on auditing making sure the transactions are legal and just evaluating the books. Efficiency evaluates the productivity of the program and the resources used—making sure tasks are completely understood and the right people are doing them (qualified employees). Finally, effectiveness is used to see if the government resources are helping achieve the goals of the policies.

LeMay, Michael C. (2006). “Balancing Values in the Administration of Public Policy”  Public Administration: Clashing Values in the Administration of Public Policy.  WADSWORTH CENGAGE Learning, 2nd edition.

Chapter 7

            Chapter 7 talks about management. It mentions the different approaches to management in this chapter: management by objectives (MBO), organizational development (OD), operations research (OR), program evaluation and review technique (PERT), quality circles (QC), and total quality management (TQM).

            MBO defines short term and long term objectives and records program results to determine their effectiveness. Throughout the world, private and public organizations have used this approach because it distinguishes between functions and objectives. It also calls for rapid change and for managers to be flexible and to think quickly on their feet.

            OD is “a process for increasing an organization’s effectiveness by integrating an individual’s desire for personal growth with the organization’s goals” (p. 173). Managers use change agents whom are outsiders that help bring about change in the organization.

            OR emphasizes efficiency through maximizing payoffs in goals the agency sets out to accomplish. It relies heavily on “probability theories, queuing techniques, and mathematical model building.” OR originated after WWII in England so that they could study bombing runs and submarine warfare. The U.S. in turn adopted this approach to help solve problems like bus schedules, mail delivery, waste management, etc.

            PERT maps out steps to carry out a program. It basically aims toward finding the best possible solution that requires the least amount of work or steps. QC is a small group of employees that try to solve problems that directly affect their work. It requires much participation, innovation, and flexibility. TQM involves continuing concern for quality in the production of goods. It seeks top performance (as should every organization).

            I believe all these approaches are great especially when aspects from each of them are combined to reach optimum performance, quality, and efficiency of the organization at hand.

Chapter 5

            In chapter 5, it talks about the schools of organizational theory. The five schools of thought talked about in this chapter are classical theory, humanist theory, neoclassical theory, systems theory, and new public management theory. Each school focuses on certain values in organization to characterize the school of thought. The scholars that make up a school share common values and assumptions about organization.

            The humanist school of organizational theorists, also known as the human relations school, developed in reaction to the image that organization is “one composed ideally of clearly defined units and subdivisions arranged in a pyramidal or hierarchic structure of authority” (p. 119). They think the classical model is too authoritarian and suppresses creativity. Human relations theorists focused on a need of the recognition of informal aspects of organization. It sought to help the workers and understand what factors that did not deal with economy affected these workers, the organization and the workers’ performances.

            The systems school of organization theorists value change rather than efficiency. This was created after World War II. The systems theory is multidimensional, complex, and sees organizations as states of equilibrium. It favors structures less rigid because “flexibility is a core value.” It calls for organizations to keep changing and adapting to their new environments to come.

            I think the best theory is the systems school theory because I like the idea of change, for the most part. Like many people, well everyone, in this world I want change but am scared of it. I believe change, most of the time, is a great thing but it does have its downfalls. The systems theory forces change and adaptation which can very much be a good thing and teach us to be quick on our feet and see what things are in need of change for the betterment of our communities.

Chapter 4

            In Chapter 4, it talks about the models of U.S. federalism which are the layer-cake model, the marble-cake model, and the picket-fence model. The layer-cake model was used to characterize relations within the federal system. Its emphasis was on the division of powers between the national and state levels which led into dual federalism later on in the years. It is called the layer cake model because each level has certain authority and it emphasizes each level’s distinctiveness.

            The marble-cake model was used during the time cooperative federalism developed. The marble cake model is named so because like marble cake, the distinctions are blurred and it is difficult to say where one “flavor” (the national government) ended and the other “flavor” (the state and local levels of government) began. Its focus was more so on the separation of government structures than the programmatic functions.

            The last model, the picket-fence model, connects all three levels of government (state, local, and national) through one centralized form of government. The bureaucrats in the different levels interact more often with those of other levels than with those of the same level of government.

            This chapter also talks about the different approaches to federalism. These approaches are dual federalism, cooperative federalism, creative federalism, new federalism, and renewed federalism. I never knew there were so many different forms of federalism. Dual federalism is when each level of government was viewed as supreme within its areas of responsibility and limited intergovernmental funding. Cooperative federalism emphasized national, state, and local governments cooperating with each other to solve problems. Creative federalism included partnerships with businesses and nonprofit social organizations. New federalism returned more autonomy to states and put more focus on block grants than project or categorical grants. Renewed federalism emphasized things such as individual rights, limited government, and economic capitalism.

            This chapter talks about many different ways and possibilities that were and can be used to help our government work best for the betterment of our nation and our people.

Chapter 6 Reaction

            In chapter six, there is a portion that talks about the effects of public policies and prices on youth smoking. This affects me personally because when I was younger, like many of my peers, I thought it was “cool” to smoke. I tried it and thank goodness I hated it. Smoking not only causes so much damage to the smoker’s body but it also causes even more damage to those around them. I suffer from secondhand smoke a lot of times. I have friends and family members that smoke around me and I hate it. I also have asthma so it makes it even harder to breathe. Also, being able to go to bars or billiard places is affected because many of these places still allow smoking in them.

            Many of the adults in today’s society have started smoking when they were minors. I did not know this until reading the book, but Congress enacted a Synar amendment “requiring states to enactg and enforce laws that prohibit tobacco sales to minors” in July of 1992. I was in the Youth for Youth organization in high school and I participated in Synar for about two or three years. Synar is when minors, along with an adult chaperone and a Revenue and Taxation officer go around the island to various vendors and see if the salesperson makes a sale of tobacco to the minor. If the salesperson allows the sale, especially without asking for identification, the Revenue and Taxation officer then comes and writes up the store for this violation. I used to think Synar was only something they did here on the island, but I was glad to read that they also do this in the mainland United States which is a really good preventive technique to keep kids from being able to get a hold of tobacco products.

            I believe that youth consumption of tobacco products is continuing to rise since the 1990s when public officials became aware of it. I think the government and private business owners should take more precaution and preventative techniques to help slow and eventually stop youth tobacco consumption. More places should ban smoking or have a designated area for smokers. I also think that in these designated areas there should be someone looking out for minors and if they find a minor smoking or using tobacco, to report them to the authorities or even to their parents so that it does not continue to happen in the future.